COA notes

Daisy-Chaining Priority

• The daisy-chaining method of establishing priority consists of a serial connection of all devices that request an interrupt.




• The device with the highest priority is placed in the first position, followed by lower-priority devices up to the device with the lowest priority, which is placed last in the chain.




• This method of connection between three devices and the CPU is shown in Fig. 12. The interrupt request line is common to all devices and forms a wired logic connection.




• If any device has its interrupt signal in the low-level state, the interrupt line goes to the low-level state and enables the interrupt input in the CPU.




• When no interrupts are pending, the interrupt line stays in the high-level state and no interrupts are recognized by the CPU.




• This is equivalent to a negative logic OR operation. The CPU responds to an interrupt request by enabling the interrupt acknowledge line. This signal is received by device 1 at its PI (priority in) input.




• The acknowledge signal passes on to the next device through the PO (priority out) output only if device 1 is not requesting an interrupt.




• If device 1 has a pending interrupt, it blocks the acknowledge signal from the next device by placing a 0 in the PO output.




• It then proceeds to insert its own interrupt vector address (VAD) into the data bus for the CPU to use during the interrupt cycle.




• A device with a 0 in its PI input generates a 0 in its PO output to inform the next-lower-priority device that the acknowledge signal has been blocked.




• A device that is requesting an interrupt and has a 1 in its PI input will intercept the acknowledge signal by placing a 0 in its PO output.




• If the device does not have pending interrupts, it transmits the acknowledge signal to the next device by placing a 1 in its PO output.




• 




• Thus the device with PI = 1 and PO = 0 is the one with the highest priority that is requesting an interrupt, and this device places its VAD on the data bus.




• The daisy chain arrangement gives the highest priority to the device that receives the interrupt acknowledge signal from the CPU.




• The farther the device is from the first position, the lower is its priority.




• Figure 13 shows the internal logic that must be included within each device when connected in the daisy-chaining scheme. The device sets its RF flip-flop when it wants to interrupt the CPU.




• The output of the RF flip-flop goes through an open-collector inverter, a circuit that provides the wired logic for the common interrupt line.




• If PI = 0, both PO and the enable line to VAD are equal to 0, irrespective of the value of RF. If PI = 1 and RF = 0, then PO = 1 and the vector address is disabled.




• This condition passes the acknowledge signal to the next device through PO.




• The device is active when PI = 1 and RF = 1. This condition places a 0 in PO and enables the vector address for the data bus.




• It is assumed that each device has its own distinct vector address. The RF flip-flop is reset after a sufficient delay to ensure that the CPU has received the vector address.

Parallel Priority Interrupt

• The parallel priority interrupt method uses a register whose bits are set separately by the interrupt signal from each device.




• Priority is established according to the position of the bits in the register.




• In addition to the interrupt register, the circuit may include a mask register whose purpose is to control the status of each interrupt request.




• 




• The mask register can be programmed to disable lower-priority interrupts while a higher-priority device is being serviced.




• It can also provide a facility that allows a high-priority device to interrupt the CPU while a lower-priority device is being serviced.




• The priority logic for a system of four interrupt sources is shown in Fig. 14.




• It consists of an interrupt register whose individual bits are set by external conditions and cleared by program instructions.




• The magnetic disk, being a high-speed device, is given the highest priority. The printer has the next priority, followed by a character reader and a keyboard.




• The mask register has the same number of bits as the interrupt register. By means of program instructions, it is possible to set or reset any bit in the mask register.




• Each interrupt bit and its corresponding mask bit are applied to an AND gate to produce the four inputs to a priority encoder.




• In this way an interrupt is recognized only if its corresponding mask bit is set to 1 by the program. The priority encoder generates two bits of the vector address, which is transferred to the CPU.




• Another output from the encoder sets an interrupt status flip-flop lST when an interrupt that is not masked occurs. The interrupt enable flip-flop lEN can be set or cleared by the program to provide an overall control over the interrupt system.




• The outputs of IST ANDed with IEN provide a common interrupt signal for the CPU.




• The interrupt acknowledge INTACK signal from the CPU enables the bus buffers in the output register and a vector address VAD is placed into the data bus.




• 

• Direct Memory Access (DMA)

• The transfer of data between a fast storage device such as magnetic disk and memory is often limited by the speed of the CPU.




• Removing the CPU from the path and letting the peripheral device manage the memory buses directly




• 




• The data formats of peripheral devices differ from memory and CPU data formats. The IOP must structure data words from many different sources.




• For example, it may be necessary to take four bytes from an input device and pack them into one 32-bit word before the transfer to memory.




• Data are gathered in the IOP at the device rate and bit capacity while the CPU is executing its own program.




• After the input data are assembled into a memory word, they are transferred from IOP directly into memory by "stealing" one memory cycle from the CPU.




• Similarly, an output word transferred from memory to the lOP is directed from the IOP to the output device at the device rate and bit capacity.




• The communication between the IOP and the devices attached to it is similar to the program control method of transfer. Communication with the memory is similar to the direct memory access method.




• The way by which the CPU and IOP communicate depends on the level of sophistication included in the system.




• In very-large-scale computers, each processor is independent of all others and any one processor can initiate an operation. In most computer systems, the CPU is the master while the IOP is a slave processor.




• The CPU is assigned the task of initiating all operations, but 110 instructions are executed in the IOP.




• CPU instructions provide operations to start an 110 transfer and also to test 110 status conditions needed for making decisions on various 110 activities.




• The IOP, in turn, typically asks for CPU attention by means of an interrupt.




• It also responds to CPU requests by placing a status word in a prescribed location in memory to be examined later by a CPU program.




• When an 110 operation is desired, the CPU informs the IOP where to find the 110 program and then leaves the transfer details to the IOP.




• Instructions that are read from memory by an IOP are sometimes called commands, to distinguish them from instructions that are read by the CPU. Otherwise, an instruction and a command have similar functions.




• Commands are prepared by experienced programmers and are stored in memory. The command words constitute the program for the IOP.




• The CPU informs the IOP where to find the commands in memory when it is time to execute the 110 program.

CPU-IOP Communication

• The communication between CPU and IOP may take different forms, depending on the particular computer considered.




• In most cases the memory unit acts as a message center where each processor leaves information for the other.




• To appreciate the operation of a typical IOP, we will illustrate by a specific example the method by which the CPU and IOP communicate.




• This is a simplified example that omits many operating details in order to provide an overview of basic concepts.




• The sequence of operations may be carried out as shown in the flowchart of Fig. 20.




• The CPU sends an instruction to test the IOP path.




• 




• The IOP responds by inserting a status word in memory for the CPU to check.




• The bits of the status word indicate the condition of the IOP and I/O device, such as IOP overload condition, device busy with another transfer, or device ready for I/O transfer.




• The CPU refers to the status word in memory to decide what to do next. If all is in order, the CPU sends the instruction to start I/O transfer.




• The memory address received with this instruction tells the IOP where to find its program.




• The CPU can now continue with another program while the IOP is busy with the I/O program. Both programs refer to memory by means of DMA transfer.




• When the IOP terminates the execution of its program, it sends an interrupt request to the CPU. The CPU responds to the interrupt by issuing an instruction to read the status from the IOP.




• The IOP responds by placing the contents of its status report into a specified memory location. The status word indicates whether the transfer has been completed or if any errors occurred during the transfer.




• From inspection of the bits in the status word, the CPU determines if the I/O operation was completed satisfactorily without errors.




• The IOP takes care of all data transfers between several I/O units and the memory while the CPU is processing another program.




• The IOP and CPU are competing for the use of memory, so the number of devices that can be in operation is limited by the access time of the memory.




• It is not possible to saturate the memory by I/O devices in most systems, as the speed of most devices is much slower than the CPU.




• However, some very fast units, such as magnetic disks, can use an appreciable number of the available memory cycles.




• In that case, the speed of the CPU may deteriorate because it will often have to wait for the IOP to conduct memory transfers.

PROCESS AND THREAD

 Process:-A process is a program at the time of execution. 

Differences between Process and Program 

        Process                                                                                      Program 

Process is a dynamic object.                                      Program is a static object 

Process is sequence of instruction execution.            Program is a sequence of instructions 

Process loaded in to main memory.                            Program loaded into secondary storage devices.

 Time span of process is limited.                                 Time span of program is unlimited.   

Process is a active entity                                              Program is a passive entity

 Process States:- When a process executed, it changes the state, generally the state of process is determined by the current activity of the process.

 Each process may be in one of the following states: 

1. New : The process is beingcreated.

 2. Running : The process is beingexecuted.

 3. Waiting : The process is waiting for some event tooccur. 

4. Ready : The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. 

5. Terminated : The Process has finishedexecution. 

Only one process can be running in any processor at any time, But many process may be in ready and waiting states. The ready processes are loaded into a “ready queue”. Diagram of process state 

 a) New ->Ready : OS creates process and prepares the process to be executed, then OS moved the process into ready queue.

 b) Ready->Running : OS selects one of the Jobs from ready Queue and move them from ready to Running. 

c) Running->Terminated : When the Execution of a process has Completed, OS terminates that process from running state. Sometimes OS terminates the process for some other reasons including Time exceeded, memory unavailable, access violation, protection Error, I/O failure and soon.

 d) Running->Ready : When the time slot of the processor expired (or) If the processor received any interrupt signal, the OS shifted Running -> Ready State.

 e) Running -> Waiting : A process is put into the waiting state, if the process need an event occur (or) an I/O Device require.

 f) Waiting->Ready : A process in the waiting state is moved to ready state when the event for which it has been Completed.

PCB:- Each process is represented in the operating System by a Process Control Block. It is also called Task Control Block. It contains many pieces of information associated with a specific Process. 

Process State

 Program Counter 

CPU Registers 

CPU Scheduling 

Information Memory – Management Information 

Accounting Information

 I/O Status Information

 1. Process State : The State may be new, ready, running, and waiting, Terminated… 

2. Program Counter : indicates the Address of the next Instruction to be executed.

 3. CPU registers : registers include accumulators, stack pointers, General purpose Registers…. 

4. CPU-Scheduling Info : includes a process pointer, pointers to scheduling Queues, other scheduling parameters etc.

 5. Memory management Info: includes page tables, segmentation tables, value of base and limit registers.

 6. Accounting Information: includes amount of CPU used, time limits, Jobs(or)Process numbers.

 7. I/O Status Information: Includes the list of I/O Devices Allocated to the processes, list of open files.

 Threads: A process is divide into number of light weight process, each light weight process is said to be a Thread. The Thread has a program counter (Keeps track of which instruction to execute next), registers (holds its current working variables), stack (execution History). 

Thread States: 

1. born State : A thread is just created. 

2. ready state : The thread is waiting for CPU. 

3. running : System assigns the processor to the thread.

 4. sleep : A sleeping thread becomes ready after the designated sleep time expires.

 5. dead : The Execution of the threadfinished.

 Eg: Word processor. Typing, Formatting, Spell check, saving are threads. 

Differences between Process and Thread 

                          Process                                                                Thread 

Process takes more time to create.                                       Thread takes less time to create. 

it takes more time to complete execution & terminate.         Less time to terminate.

 Execution is very slow.                                                         Execution is very fast.

 It takes more time to switch b/w two processes.                  It takes less time to switch b/w two threads.

 Communication b/w two processes is difficult .                  Communication b/w two threads is easy.

 Process can’t share the same memory area.                        Threads can share same memory area.

 System calls are requested to communicate each other.      System calls are not required. 

Process is loosely coupled.                                                   Threads are tightly coupled. 

It requires more resources to execute.                                      Requires few resources to execute.

 Multithreading: A process is divided into number of smaller tasks each task is called a Thread. Number of Threads with in a Process execute at a time is called Multithreading. 

Asynchronous Data Transfer strobe signal

Asynchronous Data Transfer

• The internal operations in a digital system are synchronized by means of clock pulses supplied by a common pulse generator.




• Clock pulses are applied to all registers within a unit and all data transfers among internal registers occur simultaneously during the occurrence of a clock pulse.




• Two units, such as a CPU and an I/O interface, are designed independently of each other.




• If the registers in the interface share a common clock with the CPU registers, the transfer between the two units is said to be synchronous.




• In most cases, the internal timing in each unit is independent from the other in that each uses its own private clock for internal registers. In that case, the two units are said to be asynchronous to each other. This approach is widely used in most computer systems.




• Asynchronous data transfer between two independent units requires that control signals be transmitted between the communicating units to indicate the time at which data is being transmitted.




• One way of achieving this is by means of a strobe pulse supplied by one of the units to indicate to the other unit when the transfer has to occur.




• Another method commonly used is to accompany each data item being transferred with a control signal that indicates the presence of data in the bus.




• The unit receiving the data item responds with another control signal to acknowledge receipt of the data. This type of agreement between two independent units is referred to as handshaking.




• The strobe pulse method and the handshaking method of asynchronous data transfer are not restricted to I/O transfers. In fact, they are used extensively on numerous occasions requiring the transfer of data between two independent units.




• In the general case we consider the transmitting unit as the source and the receiving unit as the destination.




• For example, the CPU is the source unit during an output or a write transfer and it is the destination unit during an input or a read transfer.




• It is customary to specify the asynchronous transfer between two independent units by means of a timing diagram that shows the timing relationship that must exist between the control signals and the data in the buses.




• The sequence of control during an asynchronous transfer depends on whether the transfer is initiated by the source or by the destination unit.

Strobe Control

• The strobe control method of asynchronous data transfer employs a single control line to time each transfer. The strobe may be activated by either the source or the destination unit. Figure 3(a) shows a source-initiated transfer.




• 




• The data bus carries the binary information from source unit to the destination unit.




• Typically, the bus has multiple lines to transfer an entire byte or word. The strobe is a single line that informs the destination unit when a valid data word is available in the bus.




• As shown in the timing diagram of Fig. 3(b), the source unit first places the data on the data bus.




• After a brief delay to ensure that the data settle to a steady value, the source activates the strobe pulse.




• The information on the data bus and the strobe signal remain in the active state for a sufficient time period to allow the destination unit to receive the data.




• Often, the destination unit uses the falling edge of the strobe pulse to transfer the contents of the data bus into one of its internal registers.




• The source removes the data from the bus a brief period after it disables its strobe pulse.




• Actually, the source does not have to change the information in the data bus. The fact that the strobe signal is disabled indicates that the data bus does not contain valid data. New valid data will be available only after the strobe is enabled again.




• Figure 4 shows a data transfer initiated by the destination unit. In this case the destination unit activates the strobe pulse, informing the source to provide the data.




• The source unit responds by placing the requested binary information on the data bus. The data must be valid and remain in the bus long enough for the destination unit to accept it. The falling edge of the strobe pulse can be used again to trigger a destination register




• The destination unit then disables the strobe. The source removes the data from the bus after a predetermined time interval.




• In many computers the strobe pulse is actually controlled by the clock pulses in the CPU. The CPU is always in control of the buses and informs the external units how to transfer data.




• For example, the strobe of Fig. 3 could be a memory-write control signal from the CPU to a memory unit. The source, being the CPU, places a word on the data bus and informs the memory unit, which is the destination, that this is a write operation.




• 




• Similarly, the strobe of Fig. 4 could be a memory-read control signal from the CPU to a memory unit.




• The destination, the CPU, initiates the read operation to inform the memory, which is the source, to place a selected word into the data bus.




• The transfer of data between the CPU and an interface unit is similar to the strobe transfer just described.




• Data transfer between an interface and an I/O device is commonly controlled by a set of handshaking lines.

Handshaking

• The disadvantage of the strobe method is that the source unit that initiates the transfer has no way of knowing whether the destination unit has actually received the data item that was placed in the bus.




• Similarly, a destination unit that initiates the transfer has no way of knowing whether the source unit has actually placed the data on the bus.




• The handshake method solves this problem by introducing a second control signal that provides a reply to the unit that initiates the transfer.




• The basic principle of the two-wire handshaking method of data transfer is as follows.




• One control line is in the same direction as the data flow in the bus from the source to the destination.




• It is used by the source unit to inform the destination unit whether there are valid data in the bus.




• The other control line is in the other direction from the destination to the source.




• It is used by the destination unit to inform the source whether it can accept data. The sequence of control during the transfer depends on the unit that initiates the transfer.




• Figure 5 shows the data transfer procedure when initiated by the source. The two handshaking lines are data valid, which is generated by the source unit, and data accepted, generated by the destination unit.




• The timing diagram shows the exchange of signals between the two units. The sequence of events listed in part (c) shows the four possible states that the system can be at any given time.




• 




• The source unit initiates the transfer by placing the data on the bus and enabling its data valid signal.




• The data accepted signal is activated by the destination unit after it accepts the data from the bus.




• The source unit then disables its data valid signal, which invalidates the data on the bus.




• The destination unit then disables its data accepted signal and the system goes into its initial state.




• The source does not send the next data item until after the destination unit shows its readiness to accept new data by disabling its data accepted signal.




• This scheme allows arbitrary delays from one state to the next and permits each unit to respond at its own data transfer rate. The rate of transfer is determined by the slowest unit.




• The destination-initiated transfer using handshaking lines is shown in Fig. 6. Note that the name of the signal generated by the destination unit has been changed to ready for data to reflect its new meaning.




• The source unit in this case does not place data on the bus until after it receives the ready for data signal from the destination unit.




• From there on, the handshaking procedure follows the same pattern as in the source-initiated case.




• Note that the sequence of events in both cases would be identical if we consider the ready for data signal as the complement of data accepted.




• In fact, the only difference between the source-initiated and the destination-initiated transfer is in their choice of initial state.




• The handshaking scheme provides a high degree of flexibility and reliability because the successful completion of a data transfer relies on active participation by both units. If one unit is faulty, the data transfer will not be completed.




• Such an error can be detected by means of a timeout mechanism, which produces an alarm if the data transfer is not completed within a predetermined time.




• The timeout is implemented by means of an internal clock that starts counting time when the unit enables one of its handshaking control signals.




• If the return handshake signal does not respond within a given time period, the unit assumes that an error has occurred.




• The timeout signal can be used to interrupt the processor and hence execute a service routine that takes appropriate error recovery action




• 

Asynchronous Serial Transfer

• The transfer of data between two units may be done in parallel or serial. In parallel data transmission, each bit of the message has its own path and the total message is transmitted at the same time.




• This means that an n-bit message must be transmitted through n separate conductor paths. In serial data transmission, each bit in the message is sent in sequence one at a time.




• This method requires the use of one pair of conductors or one conductor and a common ground.




• Parallel transmission is faster but requires many wires. It is used for short distances and where speed is important. Serial transmission is slower but is less expensive since it requires only one pair of conductors.




• Serial transmission can be synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous transmission, the two units share a common clock frequency and bits are transmitted continuously at the rate dictated by the clock pulses.




• In long distant serial transmission, each unit is driven by a separate clock of the same frequency.




• Synchronization signals are transmitted periodically between the two units to keep their clocks in step with each other. In asynchronous transmission, binary information is sent only when it is available and the line remains idle when there is no information to be transmitted.




• This is in contrast to synchronous transmission, where bits must be transmitted continuously to keep the clock frequency in both units synchronized with each other.




• A serial asynchronous data transmission technique used in many interactive terminals employs special bits that are inserted at both ends of the character code.




• With this technique, each character consists of three parts: a start bit, the character bits, and stop bits. The convention is that the transmitter rests at the 1-state when no characters are transmitted. The first bit, called the start bit, is always a 0 and is used to indicate the beginning of a character.




• The last bit called the stop bit is always a 1. An example of this format is shown in Fig. 7.




• A transmitted character can be detected by the receiver from knowledge of the transmission rules:




• 1. When a character is not being sent, the line is kept in the 1-state.
  2. The initiation of a character transmission is detected from the start bit,
  which is always 0.
  3. The character bits always follow the start bit.
  4. After the last bit of the character is transmitted, a stop bit is detected
  when the line returns to the 1-state for at least one bit time.
  Using these rules, the receiver can detect the start bit when the line goes from
  1 to 0. 
  




• A clock in the receiver examines the line at proper bit times. The receiver knows the transfer rate of the bits and the number of character bits to accept. After the character bits are transmitted, one or two stop bits are sent.




• The stop bits are always in the 1-state and frame the end of the character to signify the idle or wait state.




• At the end of the character the line is held at the 1-state for a period of at least one or two bit times so that both the transmitter and receiver can resynchronize.




• The length of time that the line stays in this state depends on the amount of time required for the equipment to resynchronize. Some older electromechanical terminals use two stop bits, but newer terminals use one stop bit. The line remains in the 1-state until another character is transmitted.




• The stop time ensures that a new character will not follow for one or two bit times.




• As an illustration, consider the serial transmission of a terminal whose transfer rate is 10 characters per second. Each transmitted character consists




• 




• of a start bit, eight information bits, and two stop bits, for a total of 11 bits.




• Ten characters per second means that each character takes 0.1 s for transfer. Since there are 11 bits to be transmitted, it follows that the bit time is 9.09 ms.




• The baud rate is defined as the rate at which serial information is transmitted and is equivalent to the data transfer in bits per second. Ten characters per second with an 11-bit format has a transfer rate of 110 baud.




• The terminal has a keyboard and a printer. Every time a key is depressed, the terminal sends 11 bits serially along a wire. To print a character in the printer, an 11-bit message must be received along another wire. The terminal interface consists of a transmitter and a receiver.




• The transmitter accepts an 8-bit character from the computer and proceeds to send a serial 11-bit message into the printer line. The receiver accepts a serial 11-bit message from the keyboard line and forwards the 8-bit character code into the computer.




• Integrated circuits are available which are specifically designed to provide the interface between computer and similar interactive terminals. Such a circuit is called an asynchronous communication interface or a universal asynchronous receivertransmitter (UART).

uhv importantquestion answer

 Q. What is the content of self-exploration?

Ans: Content of self-exploration can be visualized in terms of finding answer to the following fundamental question for all human beings:

1. What are his/her basic aspirations?
2. What is the process to fulfill this basic aspiration?

This is what any human being would like to know and work towards its actualization in life and if you have the answer for these two questions, there is no other question that remains to be answered.

Q. Define sensations?

Ans: A perception associated with stimulation of a sense organ or with a specific body condition is known as sensation. For example, the sensation of heat. In other words, it is a term commonly used to refer to the subjective experience resulting from stimulation of a sense organ, for instance, a sensation of warm, sour, or green. Suppose we had seen the bike and not associated it with ‘greatness’; rather we only liked the way it ‘looked’ – then this is based on the sensation.

Q. What do you mean by Imagination? OR What is Imagination?

ANS. The activities of desire, thoughts and expectation at the level of self, are collectively called as imagination.

Imagination = Desires + Thoughts + Expectations

We all imagine, and most of our activities (in the self) today can be mostly clubbed into imagination. This activity of imagination in ‘I’ is continuous and not temporary. The power may change but the activity is continuous. The object of the taste may change but the activity of selecting/tasting is continuous. Also what we analyze may keep changing the activity of analyzing is continuous. We make choices with the external world based on our imagination today.

Q. What are preconditioning?

Ans: Preconditioning means the condition developed by beliefs (manyatas). To day we are not oriented enough to evaluate our belief and we treat them as our personal domain. When these come in conflict, we try hard to search out justification and make all effort to defend our own preconditioning. Since we do not verify within ourselves, we continue to live with a set of preconditioning which may or may not be true. We have to start verifying our preconditioning on the basis of our natural acceptance, as living on the basis of natural acceptance make us more authentic.

Q. List the down the values in human relationship

Ans: Relationship is between the self (I) and the other self (I). There are nine feelings (values), or expectation of feelings (values), in relationship: of oneself (I) for the other self (I). These feelings (values) can be recognized: they are definite (9 Feelings), their fulfilment and evaluation leads to mutual happiness.   

Trust	Respect	Affection
Care	Guidance	Reverence
Glory	Gratitude	Love

 

Q. Define trust.  How is ‘trust’ the foundation value of relationships?

or

What do you understand by ‘trust’? What is its importance in human relationship? (UPTU 2011–12)

 

Ans: Trust or vishwas is the foundational value in relationship. “To be assured that each human being inherently wants oneself and the other to be happy and prosperous” is known as trust. Having faith in others and believing them. Trust is the expectation of people that they can rely on our word. It is built through integrity and consistency in relationships. To keep the trust on ourself and others, we have to pay attention on the intensions and to understand if we or the other person is not able to do benefit, it is because we are lacking competence. Trust is the result of right understanding of the intention of all the human beings around us. This trust helps to improve our competence in others and in ourselves.

Q. Explain the feeling of ‘respect’

Ans: Respect means individuality. The sense of individuality is prime object. This is the first basic step towards respect (sammana). Once we realized that we are individual then only we can see ourself different from others. In other words, respect means right evaluation, to be evaluated as I am.

Q. Define ‘affection’.

or

How does affection lead to harmony in the family?

 

Ans: Affection is the feeling of being related to the other. Affection comes when I recognize that we both want to make each other happy and both of us are similar. Then for the first time, I feel that I am related to the other that the other is a relative of mine. This feeling is called affection. The feeling of affection comes only if trust and respect are already ensured. Without trust and respect, we feel the other is trying to make us unhappy, does not wish well for us and hence we can never feel affection for him/her. We always see the other as being in opposition.

Q. Explain the feeling of ‘care’

Ans: The feeling of care is the feeling to nurture and protect the body of our relative. Or in other words a state of mind in which one is troubled; worry, anxiety, or concern is called care. Care is level of active concern, or lack of negligence, towards avoidance of possible dangers, mistakes, pitfalls, and risks, demanded of a party as a duty or legal obligation. We understand a human being as a coexistence of the self (‘I’) and the body, and the body is an instrument of ‘I’. Based on this understanding, we take the responsibility of nurturing and protecting the body of our relatives.

Q. Explain the feeling of ‘guidance’

Ans: The feeling of ensuring right understanding and feelings in the other (my relative) is called guidance. We understand the need of self (‘I’) for right understanding and feelings. We also understand that the other is similar to me in his/her faculty of natural acceptance, desire of wanting continuous happiness and the program of living in harmony at all the four levels. The other is also similar to me in the potential of desire, thoughts and expectation.

Q. Explain the feeling of ‘reverence’

Ans: The feeling of acceptance of excellence in the other is called reverence. We understand that we aspire for continuous happiness and to realize it, we have to understand harmony at all the levels of our living, and live accordingly. When we see that the other has achieved this excellence- which means to understand and to live in harmony at all the levels of living ensuring continuity of happiness, we have a feeling of reverence for him/her. This feeling of accepting the excellence in the other is called reverence.

Q. What do you mean by ‘glory’?

Ans: Glory is the feeling for someone who has made efforts for excellence. We find that there have been people in the history, or even around us, who are investing their time, energy and their belongings to achieve excellence (to understand and to live in harmony at all levels of living ensuring continuity of happiness), to make others excellent. This gives us a feeling of glory for them.

Q. Explain the feeling of ‘gratitude’

Ans: Gratitude is the feeling of acceptance for those who have made efforts for my excellence. Gratitude is an emotion that occurs after people receive help, depending on how they interpret the situation. Specifically, gratitude is experienced if people perceive the help they receive as (a) valuable to them, (b) costly to their benefactor, and (c) given by the benefactor with benevolent intentions.

Q. How the value in relationship is fulfilled?

Ans: Justice is the recognition of values (the definite feelings) in relationship, their fulfilment, the right evaluation of the fulfilment resulting in mutual happiness. Once we have recognized the existence of human relationship, we are subsequently able to identify the feelings (values). When we work and behave according to these feelings, it leads to fulfilment of both sides in the relationship i.e. it leads to mutual fulfilment.

Thus there are four elements of ensuring values in relationship: recognition of values, fulfilment, evaluation and mutual happiness ensured. When all the four are ensured justice is ensured.

Q. Suggest any two programs that you can undertake to improve the health of your body.

Ans: To ensure the health of the body, we need to undertake the following programs: (any two)

1.    Proper upkeep of the body: When we work body gets tired. When we take rest body becomes fit to work. So we need to ensure proper time, posture and ways to work and to rest. These issues are included in the upkeep of the body.

2.    Physical labour and exercise: requisite amount of physical labour and exercise are essential to keep the body healthy. Labour means employing the body physically for production and maintenance of physical facilities.

3.    Asan-Pranayam: Yogasana and Pranayama are well-designed exercise to keep the body healthy and to ensure the synergy between self and the body. These exercises involve specific postures and regulations of breathing.

Q. What can be the basis of undivided society- the world family?

Ans: The feelings of being related to every human being leads to our participation in an undivided society. By living in relationship in the family, we get the occasion to gain the assurance that the other person is an aid to me and not a hindrance. The family is a laboratory of sorts, in which we live our understanding and relationship. With the understanding of values in human relationship, we are able to recognize the connectedness with every individual correctly and fulfil it. On getting assured, it becomes easy to see that society is an extension of family and that it is possible to live in harmony with every human being- thus laying the foundation for an undivided society- from family to world family.

Q. Human being is more than Body. Justify

Ans: When we refer to someone as Human beings, we find there is a familiar shape and structure of human body-like features. The body is wonderfully made, like a complex, perfect machine that has increasingly complex levels of organization progressing from cell to tissues to organs to organ systems and finally to organism. But in addition to the body, we are also aware of the aliveness of the person- the entities that keep the body alive and make it operate in various ways. We perceive this aliveness in the activity demonstrated by the person like their seeing, talking, listening, walking, eating, etc. On a deeper examination of the aliveness, we sense the subtler activities of the person – the person’s feelings, thinking, believing etc. It is impossible to imagine a human being – a person that is alive- without these two aspects namely the body and the aliveness, called I. Thus human being is a co-existence of Body and I.

Those who do not believe that human being is more than Body, will be required to explain why sudden shocking news will destroy the appetite completely also why a vivid description of the most luscious eatables will make anybody hungry, even within an hour after a hearty meal. The other example include, we do not say my legs started walking by themselves! We say, I decided to walk i.e. the decision to walk is taken by I and not the legs which is part of the body.

Q. What are the implications of value based living at all four levels of living? Explain.

Ans: The implication of value based living can be studied in the following terms:

1. At the level of the individual: Transition towards happiness and prosperity will take place at the individual level. It will instill self confidence, spontaneous joyfulness, peace, contentment and bliss in the self and also perseverance, bravery and generosity in living of the individual.

2. At the level of the family: Mutual fulfillment in relationships, prosperity in the family, s

Q. What exactly is implied by the term- ‘nature’? Explain. OR Define nature.

Ans: All the physical objects that are in solid, liquid or gas state either living or nonliving, collectively termed as nature. In other words, the aggregate of all the mutually interacting units – big or small, sentient or insentient together can be called nature. These units are infinite in number and we could easily observe that there exists a dynamic balance, self-regulation among all these units. There are four orders of nature:

• Material order                       • Pranic order

• Animal order                        • Human order

Q. "As the seed, thus the plant". Explain.

Ans: As the seed, thus the plant, it means in plant order there is a seed conformance. The plant grown from a seed will have the same qualities that were present in the seed. A neem seed will always sprout a neem plant. All of us know this. Its fruits, its leaves, the taste of the leaves, the colour of the leaves, all this information, this basic information of every neem plant is stored in the seed. Thus, we say the plant is always as the seed, or we can say, ‘as the seed, thus the plant’. Hence, we say that a plant conforms to the seed, or has ‘seed comformance’. This ‘seed comformance’ method is the mechanism by means of which the continuity of a plant species is maintained in nature/existence.

Q. What do you understand by competence in professional ethics? Give two examples of its implications in industry.

Ans: Competence in professional ethics is the ability to work at an occupation in a manner as defined by professional ethical codes of conduct. This generally involves knowing when to apply and when to forbear from applying knowledge, based on ethical principles: what is ‘right’ and not ‘right’ taking into account client needs as well as what is morally correct and sensitive to the situation of clients and other stakeholders.

Developing ethical competence or the value competence of an individual is the only effective way to ensure professional ethics. In absence of such a competence, administering oaths and prescribing codes of conduct etc. become mere formalities.

The salient features characterizing the competence in profession are:

Ø  Clarity about the comprehensive human goal.

Ø  Confidences in oneself as well as confidence in harmony.

Ø  Competence of mutually fulfilling behaviour.

Ø  Competence of mutually enriching interaction with nature.

Ø  Competence of actualizing one’s understanding in real life.

The issues of competence in professional ethics are becoming very complex in current scenario particularly in Industry. The two burning example in this regard are:

1.      We are frequently coming across serious scams, major economic offences and kickback in large scale purchases, manifesting in the form of ‘Hawala’ or ‘Benami Transaction’. In turn leading to a parallel black market economy.

2.      The other most common violation of ethical practices in finance related profession is insider trading, stakeholder interest vs. stockholder interest.

Q. What do you understand by Holistic Technology? Briefly explain.

Ans: The modern technology and systems are all human inventions in response to the needs visualized under the influence of prevailing worldview. In order to facilitate the development of holistic technologies and systems, it will be necessary to visualize alternative objective functions and to formulate appropriate criteria for evaluation compatible with comprehensive human goal

Generally speaking, there are three broad criteria to guide the development of such technologies and systems, viz.

v  Catering to appropriate needs and lifestyles 

v  People friendly

v  Eco-friendly

In addition, these have to promote local self-sufficiency and optimal utilization of local resources and expertise. Development of these technologies will provide- a model of living which is inherently conducive to the needs of all human beings and also compatible with the nature. The development of such system and devices requires right understanding and a close scrutiny of the system and processes of nature, as these are basically holistic, time tested and self regulated. Further, it will also require a careful learning from some of the traditional practices, critically examining them so that we are able to identify their strength and desirable features and retain them while evolving technologies and system for our present need. Only then we can appropriately harness the store house of traditional wisdom along with the present day knowledge of science and technology.

Q. What is the responsibility of the Self towards the Body? How is it fulfilled?

Ans: The human body is a self-organized and highly sophisticated mechanism. We observe that the body is made up of several organs and glands and the different part of the body keep working in a close coordination. Close observation of the body reveals that each cell is self-organized and participating in the self-organization of the body as whole. All this activity keeps the body fit for the use of self (I) so that self (I) and body may work in synergy as human being. The responsibility of self (I) towards the body is in the form of feelings of Sanyama (self-regulation) on the part of self (I) which in turn ensures Swasthya (Health) of the body. Sanyama (self-regulation) is the feeling of responsibility in the self (I) for nurturing, protection and right utilization of the Body.

This is fulfilled by the realization of the fact that body is my instrument and that the body needs to be given nutrition, protected from the environment and utilize to work as an efficient and effective tool for the right purpose, I become responsible to the body. This sense of responsibility flows naturally and does not have to be imposed. Thus there is no feeling of control or imposition, but a feeling of responsibility that is regulating the way we take care of and use our body. When I live with sanyama (self-regulation), there is harmony in among the different parts of the body and the body acts according to me as a useful instruments.

Q. What are the four orders in nature? How can the human order be responsible to the other three orders?

Ans: If you look around, everything that we see can be put into one of the following four orders:

v  Material Order – e.g. soil, water, air, etc.

v  Plant/ Bio Order – e.g. grass, plants, trees, flowers, fruits, etc.

v  Animal Order – e.g. animal, birds, etc.

v  Human Order – Human being

Each one of us can recognize all these four orders around ourselves and see that together these four orders comprise of all the units that we see and understand around us

On close inspection of these orders, we can easily see that except human order, the first three orders are interconnected. The relationship between the first three orders is in such a way that they all fulfill each other and coexist with each other.

On looking at the connectedness with human beings, we find that:

v  Each of these three orders is fulfilling to the human order

v  Human natural acceptance to be mutually fulfilling these entities

However we are not able to ensure this mutual fulfillment. We are dependent on the material order for soil, minerals and metals but only end up polluting the soil and depleting the fossil fuel, metals, etc. We are dependent of animals to carry out our production and transportation activities, but also made many animal species extinct.

On the other hand, if we explore our natural acceptance, we find that we want to live harmoniously with nature. This is important for our own happiness. These relationships we need to be properly understand.

Q. Define ‘units’ and ‘space’.

Ans: There are two kinds of realities in existence: units and space. Unit is something that is limited in size. Like a small blade of human hair to the biggest planets we know of, they are all limited in size i.e. bounded on six sides. So all the things we have been studying so far: the human beings, animals, lumps of matter as well as various atoms and molecules, are all units. We can recognize them as such, they are countable. Whereas, space is not a unit but it exists, as a reality. We can’t touch it, smell it. We normally just see through it. It exists everywhere. In other words the empty area all around the nature is space.

Q. Explain energized and energy in equilibrium.

Ans: What we normally call or consider as energy today, is the ‘transfer of energy’. For example, when you place water in a vessel on the stove, we say the heat energy from the flame was transferred to the water in the vessel. Anything that is a unit, has activity, anything that has activity, is energized. All the particles in the water and the metal stove are active, very active and energized. Hence we don’t say that space is energized but we say ‘space is energy in equilibrium’ or it is ‘constant energy’. All units are energized in space. This energy is available to all units. In other words, space is equilibrium energy, all units are in space; all units are energized and active being in space.

Q. What is ethical human conduct?

or

How does right understanding provide the basis for ethical human conduct? Give two examples.

 

Ans: The right understanding gained through self-exploration enables us to identify the definitiveness of human conduct which may also be called the ethical human conduct. It is the same for all human beings.

So we are also able to understand the universality of ethical human conduct which is in consonance with the universal human values. Unless we have the right understanding, we are not able to identify the definitiveness of ethical human conduct.

Q. Define ethics.

or

What do you mean by ethics?

 

Ans: This definitiveness of human conduct in terms of values, policies and character is termed as ethics. The ethics in the living of an individual can be imbibed only through inculcation of values, policies and character, and this is possible through the process of ensuring right understanding through self-exploration. In other words ethics (also known as moral philosophy) is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality – that is, concepts such as good vs. bad, noble vs. ignoble, right vs. wrong, and matters of justice, love, peace and virtue.