coa file

                                        EXPERIMENT:-1

AIM: Computer Anatomy memory, ports, motherboard and add on card

Computer Memory:  The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data and produce output. The computer memory is divided into large number of small parts known as cells. Each cell has a unique address which varies from 0 to memory size minus one.

Computer memory is of two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM). The secondary memory (hard disk) is referred as storage not memory.

But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four types:

• Register memory
• Cache memory
• Primary memory
• Secondary memory

Register Memory:  Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is not a part of the main memory and is located in the CPU in the form of registers, which are the smallest data holding elements. A register temporarily holds frequently used data, instructions, and memory address that are to be used by CPU. They hold instructions that are currently processed by the CPU. All data is required to pass through registers before it can be processed. So, they are used by CPU to process the data entered by the users.

Registers hold a small amount of data around 32 bits to 64 bits. The speed of a CPU depends on the number and size (no. of bits) of registers that are built into the CPU. Registers can be of different types based on their uses. Some of the widely used Registers include Accumulator or AC, Data Register or DR, the Address Register or AR, Program Counter (PC), I/O Address Register, and more.

Types and Functions of Computer Registers:

• Data Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store operands (variables) to be operated by the processor. It temporarily stores data, which is being transmitted to or received from a peripheral device.
• Program Counter (PC): It holds the address of the memory location of the next instruction, which is to be fetched after the current instruction is completed. So, it is used to maintain the path of execution of the different programs and thus executes the programs one by one, when the previous instruction gets completed.
• Instructor Register: It is a 16-bit register. It stores the instruction which is fetched from the main memory. So, it is used to hold instruction codes, which are to be executed. The Control Unit takes instruction from Instructor Register, then decodes and executes it.
• Accumulator Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store the results produced by the system. For example, the results generated by CPU after the processing are stored in the AC register.
• Address Register: It is a 12-bit register that stores the address of a memory location where instructions or data is stored in the memory.
• I/O Address Register: Its job is to specify the address of a particular I/O device.
• I/O Buffer Register: Its job is to exchange the data between an I/O module and the CPU.

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but faster than the main memory (RAM). The CPU can access it more quickly than the primary memory. So, it is used to synchronize with high-speed CPU and to improve its performance.

Cache memory can only be accessed by CPU. It can be a reserved part of the main memory or a storage device outside the CPU. It holds the data and programs which are frequently used by the CPU. So, it makes sure that the data is instantly available for CPU whenever the CPU needs this data. In other words, if the CPU finds the required data or instructions in the cache memory, it doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM). Thus, by acting as a buffer between RAM and CPU, it speeds up the system performance.

Types of Cache Memory:

L1: It is the first level of cache memory, which is called Level 1 cache or L1 cache. In this type of cache memory, a small amount of memory is present inside the CPU itself. If a CPU has four cores (quad core cpu), then each core will have its own level 1 cache. As this memory is present in the CPU, it can work at the same speed as of the CPU. The size of this memory ranges from 2KB to 64 KB. The L1 cache further has two types of caches: Instruction cache, which stores instructions required by the CPU, and the data cache that stores the data required by the CPU.

L2: This cache is known as Level 2 cache or L2 cache. This level 2 cache may be inside the CPU or outside the CPU. All the cores of a CPU can have their own separate level 2 cache, or they can share one L2 cache among themselves. In case it is outside the CPU, it is connected with the CPU with a very high-speed bus. The memory size of this cache is in the range of 256 KB to the 512 KB. In terms of speed, they are slower than the L1 cache.

L3: It is known as Level 3 cache or L3 cache. This cache is not present in all the processors; some high-end processors may have this type of cache. This cache is used to enhance the performance of Level 1 and Level 2 cache. It is located outside the CPU and is shared by all the cores of a CPU. Its memory size ranges from 1 MB to 8 MB. Although it is slower than L1 and L2 cache, it is faster than Random Access Memory (RAM).

Primary Memory

Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.

RAM (Volatile Memory)

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions permanently. When you switch on the computer the data and instructions from the hard disk are stored in RAM.

CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the computer the RAM loses all the data.

ROM (Non-volatile Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that are written on it at the time of manufacture. So it is a permanent memory that contains all important data and instructions needed to perform important tasks like the boot process

Secondary Memory

The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to the computer are known as a secondary memory of the computer. It is also known as external memory or auxiliary storage.

The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is non-volatile, so permanently stores the data even when the computer is turned off or until this data is overwritten or deleted. The CPU can't directly access the secondary memory. First, the secondary memory data is transferred to primary memory then the CPU can access it.

Some of the secondary memory or storage devices are described below:

1) Hard Disk:

It is a rigid magnetic disc that is used to store data. It permanently stores data and is located within a drive unit

The hard disk is also known as a hard drive. It is a rigid magnetic disc that stores data permanently, as it is a non-volatile storage device. The hard disk is located within a drive unit on the computer's motherboard and comprises one or more platters packed in an air-sealed casing. The data is written on the platters by moving a magnetic head over the platters as they spin. The data stored on a computer's hard drive generally includes the operating system, installed software, and the user's files and programs, including pictures, music, videos, text documents, etc.

Components of Hard Drive:

The main components of a hard drive include a head actuator, read/write actuator arm, read/write head, platter, and spindle. A circuit board, which is called the disk controller or interface board, is present on the back of a hard drive. It allows the hard drive to communicate with the computer.

2) Solid-state Drive:

SSD (Solid State Drive) is also a non-volatile storage medium that is used to hold and access data. Unlike a hard drive, it does not have moving components, so it offers many advantages over SSD, such as faster access time, noiseless operation, less power consumption, and more.

As the cost of SSD has come down, it has become an ideal replacement for a standard hard drive in desktop and laptop computers. It is also suitable for notebooks, and tablets that don't require lots of storage.

3) Pen drive:

Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It is also known as a USB flash drive, thumb drive or a jump drive. It connects to a computer via a USB port. It is commonly used to store and transfer data between computers. For example, you can write a report using a computer and then copy or transfer it in the pen drive. Later, you can connect this pen drive to a computer to see or edit your report. You can also store your important documents and pictures, music, videos in the pen drive and keep it at a safe place.

4) SD Card:

SD Card stands for Secure Digital Card. It is most often used in portable and mobile devices such as smartphones and digital cameras. You can remove it from your device and see the things stored in it using a computer with a card reader.

5) Compact Disk (CD):

Compact Disk is a portable secondary storage device in the shape of a round medium disk. It is made of polycarbonate plastic. The concept of CD was co-developed by Philips and Sony in 1982. The first CD was created on 17 August 1982 at the workshop of Philips in Germany.

Computer Ports

A port is a connection or a jack provided on a computer to connect external or peripheral devices to the computer, for example, you will need a port on your device to connect a keyboard, mouse, pen-drives, etc. So, it acts as an interface or a point of attachment between computer and external devices. It is also called a communication port, as it is the point where you plug in a peripheral device to allow data transfer or communication between the device and computer.

Serial Port:

This type of ports provides an interface to connect to peripheral devices using a serial protocol. In this port, the rate of transmission of data is one bit at a time through a single communication line. For example, D-Subminiature or D-sub connector is a commonly used serial port, which carries RS-232 signals

Parallel Port:

As the name suggests, a parallel port is an interface that allows communication or data transfer between a computer and a device in a parallel manner through more than one communication line. For example, a printer port is a parallel port.

Motherboard:

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It

connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard

A motherboard comes with following features −

·      Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.

·      Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.

·      Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to function properly.

·      Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

Types Of Computer Cards

A computer device is an expansion device of the computer which is used to enhance the capabilities of the computer. The capabilities depend on the use of the computer card. It is inserted into the computer to add the functionality in the computer. There are various types of computer cards that are used with different features. One of the common and popular types of computer cards is the USB, universal serial bus and is the name given to the certain type of connective wire. It is used to transfer the information back and forth between the computers and also to the external devices of the computer like mouse, hard ware etc. In some computers, USB is already installed in them so the USB card enhances the ability of the computer by adding the additional ports.

High speed serial port cards is the other important types of computer cards which has a very high speed ranging from 1 serial port to 8 serial port. It operates with all major windows and has the full modem control as well as the software and hardware flow control. These all card have the ability to increase the functioning of your computer and connects your computer to the external devices. These types of computer cards vary in price, quality and the functions.

Graphic cards are the type of computer cards which is called the graphic processing unit is the micro processor that stimulates the 2D and 3D graphics from the micro processor. They are the expansion card whose basic purpose is to generate output images on the display. They are responsible for delivering the image on your PC. The GPU processes the data and then send the signal to the monitor. Earlier when the computers are introduced the basic purpose of graphic cards was just to display the image due to the shorter memory but with the passage of time the functioning of graphic cards is also increased.

Sound card is the other very important types of computer cards that facilitates the input and output of audio signals to and from the computers. They are responsible for recording, producing or playing the sounds in the computer. They are responsible for providing the audio components for multimedia applications in the computer like editing video or audio, presentation etc.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                             EXPERIMENT:-2

AIM: Dismantling and assembling PC.

disassembling a PC?

Disassembling a PC means disconnecting the different components of a PC.

Steps for disassembling a PC

Generally, people want to know both assemble and disassemble steps of a computer. Therefore I am sharing my ideas to help you to assemble and disassemble a computer system.

1.     Unplugged the AC power supply to the PC from the wall socket

2.     Remove the Cover or chassis or case.

3.     Unplugged bus cables and ATX power cables

4.     Remove Adapter Cards if any

5.     Now Remove the processor and the heatsink and fan

6.     Remove hard disk and CD/ DVD drives

7.     Next, remove the Memory Modules

8.     Remove the Power Supply (SMPS)

9.     Finally, Remove the Motherboard

1. Unplugged the AC power supply to the PC from the wall socket

This one is the first step to begin a PC disassemble process. Always remember first disconnect all the power supply connected to your computer system before starting to remove parts.

2. Remove the case covering

Loose the screws and remove the case covering to access the inside parts of the CPU cabinet case.

3. Unplugged bus cables and ATX power cables

Disconnect all the cables one by one inside the CPU case. First, disconnect ATX power cables from the motherboard. After that, disconnect power supply cables, bus cables from the HDD/SSD, and motherboard.

4. Remove adapter cards if any

If any adapter is connected then, disconnect the card from the motherboard.

5. Remove the processor and the heatsink and fan

Now its time to remove the heatsink from the motherboard. Generally, the CPU fan and the heatsink attach together. If it is separated in that case, you need to remove the fan first after that, you can remove the CPU heatsink.

In the final step, unlock the processor socket and remove the processor from the motherboard carefully.

6. Remove hard disk and CD/ DVD drives

Its time to remove the other parts of the computer system. Remove the Hard disk drive or SSD from the motherboard. You can also remove the CD/DVD drive from the CPU case. 

Sometimes, to remove CD/DVD drive from the CPU case, you need to remove the front cover of the CPU cabinet case first. After that, you can remove the ROM drives.

7. Remove memory modules

In this process, you do remove the RAM from the motherboard. First, unlock the RAM from both ends and pull the RAM carefully.

8. Remove the Power Supply Unit (PSU)

Already you know, SMPS supplies power to the various parts of the computer system. Here you need to remove the SMPS from the CPU cabinet case.

9. Remove the motherboard

The final step of the PC disassemble process is this one. Carefully remove the motherboard from the CPU cabinet case.

 

assembling a PC?

Assembling a PC means connecting different components of a computer so that users can use the PC or computer.

How to assemble a Computer step by step

Here, you will learn to connect various computer parts. I divided the entire assembly process into two parts with the aim that, you can easily understand the PC assembly process step by step.

To begin with assembling, in the first part, you will learn the assembly process of CPU with different CPU components.

And in the second part, you will learn the assembly process of a computer by using the standard devices of the computer system.

How to assemble a CPU step by step

This part is all about CPU assembling. Specifically, you have to be very careful with this process.

Following are the steps to assemble CPU:

1.     Take Inventory

2.     Make space and time

3.     Prepare your CPU case

4.     Install motherboard

5.     Install the processor

6.     Install the processor heat sink

7.     Install the RAM

8.     Install SMPS

9.     Install the HDD

10.  Install CD/DVD drive

11.  Connect Expansion cards

12.  Install SYS/Rear cooling fan

13.  Bus cable connection

14.  Power Cable connection

15.  Front Panel connector connection

1. Take Inventory: 

Before you start, take inventory of your parts. Make sure you have the following components and tools with you.

1.     Case/ Tower/Cabinet

2.     Motherboard

3.     Processor

4.     HeatSink and CPU Fan

5.     SMPS

6.     Hard disk drive

7.     CD/ DVD drive

8.     RAM

9.     CMOS Battery

10.  A good screwdriver sets

2. Make Space, Make Time: 

Building a PC takes space. You can use your dining room table to build your PC. So, make sure you have plenty of working space and a few hours to proceed with minimal interruption. You must work on a flat, stable tabletop surface or bare floor, where you have room to lay out all of the items, to begin with, assemble.

3. Prepare your CPU cabinet:

Now it is time to prepare the case. Remove the case cover from the CPU cabinet.

You need to check Screw brass standoffs are perfectly placed or not. If it is not in a proper position, in that case, you need to position them accurately. (always check the manual and follow their instructions)

4. INSTALL THE MOTHERBOARD:

You must take great care, especially when installing the motherboard. First, remove the motherboard of its packaging and put it on top of the antistatic bag it came in. Remember, you always want to safeguard your components from potentially hazardous static electricity.

1.     You need to secure the motherboard onto the PC case/chassis and inspect carefully for any visible defects.

2.     Next, review the motherboard handbook, to make sure you are familiar with the motherboard layout and understand which socket is which. Manuals are immensely helpful, usually easy to read, and include illustrations instructions.

3.     Check the layout of the sockets on the motherboard. And confirm that the ports on your motherboard’s back panel match the holes on the case’s Input/output (I/O) shield installed in your case. If it is necessary, then remove the old I/O shield by tapping it firmly a few times with the thicker end of a screwdriver. And then replace it with the shield that came with the new motherboard.

4.     You need carefully position the motherboard on top of the brass standoffs. After that line up all the holes, use the screws that accompanied the case to fasten down the motherboard.

5.     Don’t forget to place the CMOS in the proper position.

5. INSTALL THE PROCESSOR (CPU):

1.     Use the unlocking mechanism to open the CPU socket which is, usually a lever.

2.     Carefully line up the pins and place the chip in its socket; it will fit only when oriented correctly. An arrow or a missing pin on one corner of the chip will show you how to line things up.

3.     Align with the triangular symbol with the processor and socket key marks, as shown in the Figure.

4.     Lower the lever to lock the CPU into place.

6. INSTALL THE CPU HEAT SINK:

You should follow the manufacturer instructions to install the heat sink and the cooling fan. If you bought an OEM CPU and a separate heat sink, then you need to spread a thin layer of the thermal grease over the chip. The thermal grease ensures proper transfer of heat.

There are some heat sinks that come with this grease already applied. In that case, you don’t need to use thermal grease over the chip.

1.     Attach the clip that holds the heat sink in place, keeping in mind that it may require a fair amount of force. Again, follow the instructions that came with the heat sink. They will show you how to fit it correctly. If you are in doubt, you can visit the manufacturer’s website for more information.

2.     Plug the CPU fan’s power connector into the proper connector on the motherboard.

7. INSTALL RAM MEMORY:

1.     Unlock the two tabs from both ends of the RAM slot.

2.     To install the RAM, insert them into the proper sockets and push down firmly but evenly until the clips on both sides of the socket pop into place. If your motherboard supports dual-channel memory, consult the user manual to determine which pairs of RAM sockets you should use.

8. Install the Power Supply Unit (SMPS):

1.     Place the SMPS inside the CPU cabinet in the proper position. If you are not able to find the correct location, then check the manual.

2.     Final steps, to install SMPS, you need to tighten the screw to secure the SMPS to the case.

9. To install HDD:

You can see a 3.5 inch bay inside the CPU cabinet. If you are unable to find it, then check the manual of the case to identify the bay location.

Place the HDD inside the bay properly and tighten the screw.

10. To install CD/DVD:

You can see a 5.25 inch bay inside the CPU cabinet. If you are unable to find it, check the manual of the case to identify the bay location.

Place the CD/DVD inside the CPU cabinet to align with the 5.25-inch bay. And, finally, you need to tighten all the screws to hold firmly.

11. Install Expansion cards:

Expansion cards help to increase the functionality of your computer. You can place Expansion cards on the motherboard.

12. Install Sys/Rear cooling fan:

Find the location where you can place the Sys/Rear cooling Fan. Generally, SYS/Rear cooling can place below the SMPS. 

13. Bus cable connection:

Amazingly, bus cable or data cable connections are prime connections. Bus cable helps to share information or data between the storage device and motherboard.

If your motherboard has a SATA Bus connector, then you need to use SATA cables. AND if your motherboard has a PATA Bus connector, then you can use PATA cable or IDE cable.

In general, two bus cables need to connect inside the CPU. First, Bus cable connects the HDD and motherboard. And the second Bus cable connects the CD/DVD drive and motherboard.

14. Power Cable connection:

This one is the final step of assembling a CPU. You need to provide power to the different parts of the CPU. Plug the ATX power connector from your power supply into the matching port on your motherboard.

1.     You can find a 20/24 pins ATX power connector port on the motherboard. The 20/24 pins ATX power connector cable coming from SMPS needs to connect here. Check the lock system in both ends of the connector and the port, and place it properly. As always, refer to your motherboard’s manual for the exact locations.

2.     There is another 4-pins ATX power connector port, you can find on the motherboard. You can locate this port near the processor socket.  You must connect the 4-pins power connector in this port properly.

15. Front Panel connector connection:

Use your motherboard user manual and find the description of front-panel connectors.

First, Attach each of the tiny leads from the power and reset switches. After that, the hard-disk activity lights, the PC speaker, and any front-panel USB to the corresponding pin on your motherboard.

Part2: How to assemble PC

This one is the final part of assembling a computer system.

1.     Check your keyboard connector port. If it is a USB connector, then connect your keyboard into the proper USB port. And if it is a PS/2 connector, then connect to the correct, PS/2 port.

2.     Same steps you need to follow to connect your mouse into the proper port.

3.     You require a VGA (Video Graphic Array) cable to connect the monitor and CPU. Find the 15 pins male connector on the backside of the CPU cabinet and your monitor. Use the VGA cable to connect the CPU cabinet and the monitor. Finally, you need to tighten the lock screws.

4.     If you have a speaker, you can connect the speaker on the backside of your CPU cabinet. To get sound from the speaker, you need to plug the speaker’s cable with the Aux port.

5.     And if you have a printer, you can connect the printer on the backside of your CPU cabinet. These days, you can connect your speaker BUS cable on the USB port.

Finally, connects power to the various parts of your computer. You have to connect the power cable with the CPU case, monitor, speaker, and printer.

Check your PC Set-Up:

It is time to turn on your system and check your PC set up. Make sure the keyboard, mouse, and monitor are all plugged into the appropriate ports on the back of the PC. Plug the power cord back in, and turn the machine on.

To boot a computer you need hardware and software. Till now you have understood to assemble a computer. If you want to work on that computer you need to install an Operating System.

 

                                           

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                               Experiment  3

AIM :- Introduction to 8085 kit

APPARATUS :- 8085 IC, microprocessor kit, and power supply.

THEORY 

Architecture of 8085 Microprocessor 

The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor produced by Intel and introduced in 1976. It is a software-binary compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 with only two minor instructions added to support its added interrupt and serial input/output features. However, it requires less support circuitry, allowing simpler and less expensive microcomputer systems to be built. 

It consists of five essential blocks.  

i. Arithmetic Logic Section  

ii. Register Section 

iii. The Interrupt Control Section 

iv. Serial I/O Section 

v. The Timing And Control Unit 

1. General purpose register 

It is an 8 bit register i.e. B, C, D, E, H, L. The combination of 8 bit register is known as register pair, which can hold 16 bit data. The HL pair is used to act as memory pointer is accessible to program. 

2. Accumulator 

It is an 8 bit register which hold one of the data to be processed by ALU and stored the result of the operation.

3. Program counter (PC) 

It is a 16 bit pointer which maintain the address of a byte entered to line stack

 4. Stack pointer (S P) 

It is a 16 bit special purpose register which is used to hold line memory address for line next instruction to be executed. 

5. Arithmetic and logical unit 

It carries out arithmetic and logical operation by 8 bit address it uses the accumulator content  as input the ALU result is stored back into accumulator. 

6. Temporary register 

It is an 8 bit register associated with ALU hold data, entering an operation, used by the  microprocessor and not accessible to programs. 

7. Flags

Flag register is a group of fire, individual flip flops line content of line flag register will  change after execution of arithmetic and logic operation. The line states flags are 

a. Carry flag (C) 

b. Parity flag (P) 

c. Zero flag (Z) 

d. Auxiliary carry flag (AC) 

e. Sign flag (S)  

8. Timing and control unit  

   Synchronous all microprocessor, operation with the clock and generator and control    signal from it necessary to communicate between controller and peripherals. 

9. Instruction register and decoder 

Instruction is fetched from line memory and stored in line instruction register decoder the  stored information. 

10. Register Array 

These are used to store 8 bit data during execution of some instruction.

Address Bus

11. The pins A0 – A15 denote the address bus. 

12. They are used for most significant bit  

Address / Data Bus  

∙ AD0 – AD7 constitutes the address / Data bus  

∙These pins are used for least significant bit  

ALE: (Address Latch Enable)  

      ∙The signal goes high during the first clock cycle and enables the lower order address bits.  

IO / M  

∙This distinguishes whether the address is for memory or input.  

∙When this pins go high, the address is for an I/O device.  

S0 – S1  

∙ S0 and S1 are status signal which provides different status and functions.

  RD  

∙This is an active low signal  

∙This signal is used to control READ operation of the microprocessor.  WR  

∙ WR is also an active low signal  

∙ Controls the write operation of the microprocessor. 

HOLD  

∙This indicates if any other device is requesting the use of address and data bus. 

 HLDA  

∙ HLDA is the acknowledgement signal for HOLD  

∙ It indicates whether the hold signal is received or not.  

INTR  

∙ INTE is an interrupt request signal  

∙ IT can be enabled or disabled by using software  

INTA  

∙Whenever the microprocessor receives interrupt signal  

∙It has to be acknowledged.  

RST 5.5, 6.5, 7.5  

∙These are nothing but the restart interrupts  

∙They insert an internal restart junction automatically.  

TRAP  

∙ Trap is the only non-maskable interrupt  

∙ It cannot be enabled (or) disabled using program. 

RESET IN  

∙ This pin resets the program counter to 0 to 1 and results interrupt enable and HLDA  flip flops.  

X1, X2  

∙ These are the terminals which are connected to external oscillator to produce the  necessary and suitable clock operation.  

SID  

∙ This pin provides serial input data  

SOD  

∙ This pin provides serial output data  

VCC and VSS  

∙ VCC is +5V supply pin  

∙ VSS is ground pin